An in-Depth Analysis Essay Example for Free

An in-Depth Analysis EssayVolume 5, September 2010 The International Journal of Research and Review 51 An In-depth Analysis of the Entrepreneurship Education in the Philippines An opening Towards the Development of a Framework for a Professional Teaching Competency Program for Entrepreneurship Educators Maria Luisa B. Gatchalian Miriam College Abstract This research paper is a descriptive study, which aims to divulge the training needs of entrepreneurship educators and practices in entrepreneurship education in the Philippines. Focus Group Discussion (FGD) and one-on-one interviews argon conducted using structured and unstructured interview guides, which revealed the respondents answers, ideal patterns, expressions and insights on an array of questions pertaining to entrepreneurship education in the Philippines. The result shows that students assign the highest importance to the personal qualities of entrepreneurship educators (e. g. human and motivating, etc. ) and dogma met hodology and delivery (e. g. innovative and interactive) among opposite qualities (e. g. educational attainment).Entrepreneurship educators ascribe most importance on personalized, experience and project-based learning. However, they assert that this teaching practice should be complemented by a manageable class size, chopine support facilities and teaching skills enhancement (e. g. , mentoring, etc. ) among others. The school administrators play an important role in setting the direction and progression of the entrepreneurship program in their several(prenominal) institutions against the background of numerous challenges in managing resources to support its needs.This study highlights that entrepreneurship education in tertiary level is best achieved through a well-designed curriculum, effective teaching exercise grounded on personalized and experience-based learning, and strong institutional support. Keywords teaching and learning needs, entrepreneurship education, and tertiar y level. Introduction Entrepreneurship education is a recent trend in hot of course development as against the traditional courses that defy gained formal recognition in higher-level institutions. Entrepreneurship courses atomic number 18 now finding their way into formal education as subjects or full degree courses in the tertiary level.Unlike traditional business courses, which have developed and evolved over many decades in universities all over the ground in conjunction with active practicing business operations, formal entrepreneurship teaching in the tertiary level is a relatively young course. Professional development of entrepreneurship educators, however, is non as institutionalized as the development of teachers for traditional business courses. MBAs and PhDs in general business and in management fill the faculty rooms of colleges and universities, alone educators who hold masters and doctorate degrees in entrepreneurship are rare.Even teaching information and resou rces are non well known or are not available in many schools, making it difficult for budding entrepreneurs to find the sources they need. Entrepreneurship education is, by nature, highly experiential and interactive. Course requirements are mostly sidetrack and result oriented, 2010 Time Taylor International ? ISSN 2094-1420 Volume 5, September 2010 The International Journal of Research and Review 52 prototype development, hands-on training and other unimaginative applications that require mentoring and close monitoring of students progress at each developmental stage.Teaching college teens to become entrepreneurs takes a different set of skills, insights or sensitivity and teaching approaches to connect, motivate and engage them to. The uniqueness of the student needs and the course requirements entails specific teaching skills to match both. One of the perceived tools to address and match these needs is to primary conduct an assessment of the qualities, competencies, methods and techniques and other factors that are important to students, educators, and school administrators.There are new challenges of the learning dynamics of emerging youth in the twenty-first century. Among them are the uses and matching of modern communication technologies with appropriate teaching methodologies, which the new generation is well adapted to but a good number of educators are not. These are only a few examples of the specialized skills and acquaintance that are needed to upgrade entrepreneurship training in the tertiary level. Likewise, course management and its governance are also faced more than ever, with challenges and limitations that behoove everyone to deal creatively with.The study is grounded on the premise that if the educational system is to breed entrepreneurs as the upcoming economic movers, it is but appropriate that the learning source, or the educators should be well equipped and sensitive to their needs and learning dynamics who are ? nolonger-chil dren but not-yet adults.? In the Philippines, the Commission on Higher Education (CHED) has pushed the formal integration of entrepreneurship education pursuant to Republic Act No. 7722 as embodied in document Order No. 17 (CMO 17) Series of 2005 Curriculum Requirement for Bachelor of Science in Entrepreneurship (BS Entrepreneurship).This document contains the new academic and developmental thrusts of the Entrepreneurship Programs and Courses in the ordinal Level. It is also important to note that based on the CHED directory in the National Capital Region, there has been an increase in colleges and universities offering business and entrepreneurship courses. Some have indicated the integration of entrepreneurship in their schools, as a full course leading to a degree, a track, or as a major subject. There are already concerted efforts in the government and the private sector to advance entrepreneurship education as a long-term solution to economic advancement.It follows then tha t the prox offering of the course on entrepreneurship will increase, and programs will take on a newer form as it evolves and develops over time. One of the concrete efforts to meet these new challenges is the formation of Entrepreneurship Educators of the Philippines (ENEDA). The main thrust of the organization is to assist all its members in accessing or actually developing for their immediate use all the relevant knowledge and skills needed in teaching college students to become 2010 Time Taylor International ? ISSN 2094-1420

African American History Paper Essay Example for Free

African American History Paper EssayDr. Hardys view is that if you really want to sympathize slavery and know its full legacy and meaning you have to work with blacks. Dr. Hardy felt that even though slavery was so long ag 1 we still feel the suffering and sorrow psychologically. According to Hardy, talking roughly slavery may evoke feelings of shame and humiliation or anguish and indignation in African Americans, while it tends to bring up shame, guilt, and denial in White people. Dr. Hardy believes that even though slavery happened so long ago today both black and whites have negative feelings when the topic of slavery is brought up. The documentary that we watched in class called Africans in America the terrible conversion is about slowly but surely piece by piece African Americans became enslaved in the US. Now to tie these together is very difficult. They are similar to date different subjects. The major topic that ties them together is slavery. What is most critical t o understand especially when we consider the video Africans in America a terrible transformation is that the Atlantic Slave Trade and slavery in America were invented to pull poor people, black and white people apart to keep them fighting one a nonher making blacks and whites begin resent each other.I agree with Dr. Donald H. Matthews when he pointed out, in his book Slavery was a violation of one of the superlative achievements of Western Civilization, namely, that one should never treat a subject as an object. When we watched the PBS documentary Africans in America the terrible transformation I knowing about how slowly America was evolving into a country of slavery. Before life wasnt perfect but it was decent not everyone was equal neither. Even not all white people were equal the classes were rich and poor. The blacks and the poor whites were on the same level/class and they began to fight though like I express earlier. There arent many differences between the documentary and the book that Dr. Hardy wrote but I can name a couple. The documentary looks at the knightly and how it evolved. While the book looks at the future/present and how we are affected now. Even though these very different they bring together the same judgment that slavery has a big effect.

Case study of Elextra-Quik

Case study of Elextra-QuikIn Elextra-Quik, the manufacturing manager, Barbara was very happy about her job of problem-solving squad leader and her squad did a lot of efforts to contribute telephoners empowerment campaign. exactly when they were ready to implement the new ideas, they found not only the top manager Martin, but as well the middle level managers resisted the ideas. Therefore, this case leads to questions-how a company change to be a schooling organisation? What tail Barbara do to continue her ideas in the company? In by-line part, this paper will answer these questions based on three questions.How might top forethought shake up done a break up job ever-changing Electra-Quik into a learning organisation? What might they do now to jack off the empowerment process patronize on the track? tally to ECU study book (2011), learning organization is an organization in which everyone is engaged in lineing and solving problems. The characteristics of learning organiza tion are creating shared vision, team-based structure, employee empowerment, share cultivation, participative dodge, reconciling finishing and so on. In purchase order to underframe a learning organization, the tout ensemble levels of company staff need to contribute.Firstly, the top management plays the most of import role for transfer organization into a learning organization. They need to do a interrupt job on introducing the plans about changes carefully and deliberately. According to horseshit crazy (2009) management is the attainment of organizational goals in an effective and efficient manger through planning, organizing, leading and requireling organizational resources. So the top management is the crystallizer of companys strategy. They guide the direction of where should company go. When there is a change inwardly organization, many problems can not be avoided, such as resistances from start level staff. So top management does a good job on introducing chan ge is necessary. They need to introduce the plan in detail to make staff and middle managers to better understand the plan. They can show the evaluation about the advantages and benefits of the change to employees. With that, the plan can be accepted by everyone in the company. In Electra-Quik, Martin needs to keep enthusiastic all the time and donjon Barbaras ideas in order to make Barbaras plan can be accepted in the group meeting.Secondly, in the process of building a learning organization, the middle level managers and employees also play an important role. Middle level managers are the links amid top management and employees they monitor the changes, collect the feedback of changes and report the effects of changes to the top. Employees conduct the changes and provide the feedback to tops. Generally speaking, in learning organizations, participative strategy emerges bottom up as well as top down. Top management shape the vision and direction, and middle managers and employee s support and believe in. They are committed to the vision and contribute to the suppuration of strategy (Samson Daft, 2009, p.59). In Electra-Quik, middle manager should evaluate Barbaras ideas even Martin is absent for meeting and transfer the ideas to their staffs.In order to get the empowerment process back on track, Martin needs to step first. He needs to understand Barbaras ideas again and do a private appraisal. Then on the companys meeting, he should support Barbaras ideas and support her ideas when Barbara explaining the changes. Also he needs to consult with managers and empower employees to resolve the problem, as well as providing the training. With Martins efforts, the middle managers may change their ideas to support Barbara and conduct the changes in whole organization. Also, Martin can implement self-directed teams as the solution. independent team refer to a multi-skilled cross-functional group of employees who share responsibilities for producing service of p roduct (Rockfordconsulting, N, D). In Electra-Quik, Martin may set up some self-directed teams to conduct the empowerment process, and then they can share the responsibility to get the process back on track. dubiousness 2 Can you think of ways Barbara Russell could have avoided the problems her team faced in the meeting with department heads?Middle management jobs have undergone dramatic changes everyplace the last two decades (Samson Daft, 2009, p.24). Many organizations were expected to downsize their middle managers and slash management levels to become more efficient and facilitate decision-making process and to better adapt to the changing environment as well. The department heads are not favor of this empowerment campaign since they are used to managing the flow of information up and down the hierarchy. But todays middle managers should be responsible for the horizontal network for now most work is organized around teams.In addition, the trend in recent historic period has been towards wider span of control as a way to facilitate delegation (Samson Daft, 2009, p.37). Compared with tall structure, the flat structure has a wider span of control and is horizontally dispersed, which pith it has less hierarchical levels and therefore the organization is able to better respond and adapt to change. Thats why the company drills the empowerment campaign to let employees more involve in the decision-making process and assume more responsibility and enhance the collaboration. In such a structure, it is easier to build the self-directed teams since more authority and responsibility can be delegated to lower managers and employees.However, the department heads are likely to feel anxious and even threatened by new empowerment campaign. According to Samson Daft (2009, p.373), the attempt by the top management of the empowerment usually gets the deadlock because middle managers are unable to delegate. The possible reasons can be listed as following They are accu stomed to make familiar decisions they feel they may lose personal status by delegating tasks they believe they can do better job themselves and they are resistant to change because the performance of separately department ultimately rests with them.For Barbara Russell, she needs to consult with each department head before the meeting so as to avoid the problems. There are a number of ways that Barbara could use to resolve the problems. The leading point is that the team must identify the problems first and give their suggestions. Therefore communication plays a significant part. She should talk with department heads to be aware of what issues they want to address and how they address them. After they get the information, they can provide their support in helping them to resolve the problems. For example, the team can come up with a reward plan to encourage each department to solve their own issues and allocate some funds to assist them.The members in manufacturing team cooperate w ith each different very well, but the final exam report they presented failed to meet the expectations of the department heads.However, Barbara Russell could have avoided the problems if the top management considered building a cross-functional team at the very beginning rather than just curse on her own manufacturing team. According to Graff et al (N, D), the diverse teams can be more sophisticated and can develop more precise strategies and have advantages over functional homogenous teams in introducing organizational changes. According to Parker (2003), the competitive advantages of setting up a cross-functional team can be listed as followingthey may accelerate the process of problem solving solve complex problems more closely to connect with customers and meet their needs they can produce more innovative ideas members are more able to share information and facilitate the cooperation among departments. But on the other hand, we cannot neglect the barriers in building such a t eam since it will increase conflict and competition within the organization with diverse team members. Therefore, the trust and open communication seems significant in a cross-functional team. nous 3 If you were Barbara Russell, what would you do now? Why?If I am Barbara Russell, I will improve own leading skills and make some changes based on six elements mentioned in Figure 1.Figure 1 The web of interacting elements in a learning organizationLeadershipParticipativeStrategyTeam-basedStructureOpen entropyStrong, adaptive cultureEmpowered employeesLearningOrganizationLeadership(p534)In a learning organization, as a leader of team, Barbara should focus on using personal power and empowerment to manage the team, and try to be a democratic leader to influences and motive the employees. She should learn to share and explain the company vision, facilitate teamwork, initiate change and expand the capacity of people to shape the future. As a middle level manager, she should pay more attenti on to try to make the team member to understand the company objectives and goals, and be a bridge of communication between employee and top management. In a learning organization, Barbara also should be a transformational leader, who can create significant change in both followers and the organization (Samson Craft, cited in bass, 1995 Devanna Tichy, 1986 EastmanPawar, 1997). Leaders in a learning organization have three distinct roles 1) Create a shared vision 2) Design the structure 3) blueprint servant leadership (Samson Craft, 2009). Barbara should work to fulfill employees needs and goals as well as to achieve the organizations larger mission.CommunicationIn this case, the department heads complained that changes would destroy the carefully crafted job categories, and $500 refunds would create unethical behaviors, and industrial blob because of bad communication between top management and departments. Here, the communication means two-way communication including horizontal and vertical, exchange information between departments or team. Barbara should practice more active listening skills to interpret and feedback the information and give some suggestions or recommendations to help other departments to figure out the problems.Team workSelf-directed teams are the fundamental unit in a learning organization (Samson Craft, 2009). Barbara has to her roll from a traditional manager to a coordinator or consultant to control with team members in stead of control over them. Meanwhile, Barbara should understand that the jobs and objectives are based on team-based structure instead of individual input and effort. Barbara should work with other departments and subordinates as a team.EmpowermentTraditionally, managers take all responsibility for the whole departments. Now in a learning organization, all employees are authorized to enroll the decision making while the leadership is changing to be transformational. Barbara should change her roll to adapt the chang ing situation and give all team members the power, license to make decision and perform effectively. Also Barbara should use more personnel power and empowerment to motivate employees.Participative strategyLearning organizations have permeable boundaries and very much are linked with other organizations, give each organization greater access to information about new strategic needs and directions (Samson Craft, cited in McCune, 1997). Basically, participative strategy means organization sets up the link of the whole supplier chain to share the information internally and externally. With the globalization of business, information becomes more and more important. To some extent, successful companies depend on the most updated information like lasted technology. Barbara should share the information timely and participate the whole link to get the most updated information to achieve the company goals.CultureIn this case, one of important purposes of hiring new CEO is to rebuild the c ompany culture. Top management realized the previous culture focused on hierarchy and centralization, which did not adapt the change of environment and became an obstacle to develop the company. As a leader of manufacturing, Barbara should learn and help to build the strong, adaptive culture within the manufactory, and influence other departments as well.In conclusion, Barbara should change the leadership style into democratic and transformational leader, and self-improvement of leading skills in order to adapt the learning organization culture. She has to change her roll in new culture as well, and try to be a consultant, servant and helper within the team, and improve the skills of communication to share the information in time internally and externally. Finally, the company can be successful to transfer from the traditional organization to the learning one.ConclusionOverall, learning organization is very important for todays companies. In learning organizations, all the people ar e committed to a vision, learn and share information. With that, the whole company will be more efficient and effective. In Electra-Quik, the paper also provide solutions for top management and Barbara to solve the problem when they conducting the changes and empowerment process.

Photography Representation of Reality

Photography Representation of RealityIntroduction-When we look into a break down we often run for to forget that this is not an trope taken by a camera rather its a moment of a living beingness captured rather trap forever. In china its a belief that photographs trap soul of a person maybe its a myth or maybe its unbent also. Isnt it true that its stealing the actually essence of your life for that typeicular fraction of age?A photographer or a painter tries to tell the entire humbug of life, happiness, misery, joy, patience, grace and all the possible human emotions encapsulated in integrity frame. This is the masterpiece which he tries to re construct his entire life.Photography emerged from Europe in early nineteenth century when concepts of positivist science came into focus. Positivism believes that the empirical truths can be established by visual evidence only. Empirical truths be positions that can be established finished experimentation by recreating the circums tances for identical outcomes. In context of positivism the camera was taken to be a scientific beam of light for registering true(a)ity. Positivist theory believed that a photograph is not subjective to the psychology of the photographer exclusively is subjective to the viewer who interprets the photo.Most of the time we see an escort and we perpetually co-relate it with ourselves , how it is connected to us what is the relation it has got with our lives these are the general questions which comes in our mind while interoperating any image maken on newspaper, magazine or Television. any image tries to tell any(prenominal) story behind it and it is mainly depends on person to person how they interpret it , because it could carry different piths to the different flock what diversity of aesthetic values and taste they have got, what cultural, educational background they hold to understand its meaning and effects. Photography transformed subject into object , and even one( a) might say , into a museum object in order to take the first portrait (around 1840) the subject had to assume long poses under a ice rink roof in bright sunlight to become an object made one suffer as much as a surgical achievement then a device was invented , a kind of prosthesis invisible to the lens , which supported and maintained the body in its passage to immobility this head restraint was the pedestal of the statue i would become, the corset of my imaginary essence. Roland Barthes (1982), Camera Lucida Reflection on Photography (Fontana Paperbacks).p.13As said by Roland Barthes a French theorist picture taking makes subject into an object and photographer forever and a day plays with his surgical devices like selection, framing and personalization to make it more attractive. It can be done through lots of technical knowledge and techniques. In this commercial world of advertisements, movies and magazines everything is sold by selling emotions shown in the images. Th e photographer has to perform as an art director who tries to sell the emotions through his graphical effects on masses. That is why success of famous brands and popularity of magazines and newspapers is mainly dependant on powerful images .The image values count on its being unique, powerful, strange, shocking, adventures, different, rare.According to Roland there are two levels of meaning of an image a denotative and a connotative meaning of an image. An image can denote reliable apparent truths. Denotative meaning means literal, descriptive meaning. However the same image can connote culturally specific meaning. Connotative meaning depends on cultural and historical context of the image which the viewing audience themselves have experienced. In some different words its the viewers own interpretation of image based on their own experiences and beliefs in the cultural environment the viewer is living. Hence an image which is just a representation of reality actually invokes fac ts which are deeper than visible.In Barthes feign , in addition to the two levels of meaning of denotation and connotation , that is the sign , which is composed of the signifier and signified , which is the concept evoked by that word/image . in the Benetton ad, one interpretation could be that the burning car is the signifier and terrorism is the signified .The image (or word) and its meaning together (the signifier and signified together form the sign.Image/ sound word SignifierMeaning Signified = Sign- Marita Sturken and Lisa Cartwright(2001), Practices of looking An Introduction to Visual culture(Oxford Oxford University Press), P.19So every image has got one signifier and its meaning which we interpret is a signified which is equal to sign that means every image make us think what is the hidden meaning behind it, and most of the time photographer try to keep back that sign in that image or text which we see in newspapers, magazines or in tv commercials. In still photogra phy photographer try to give these effects by showing certain degree of subjectivity and objectivity it promptly hits the conscious mind and also try to hit the sub-conscious mind of the interpreter. In most of the advertisement emphasis is given on masculinity and genders like Marlboro ads they al authoritys feature a cowboy going on a horse they both are signifier of power and masculinity, where a cowboy is shown on prime of hill taking drags of cigarette on top of hill, Most of the under wear ads man is shown as powerful by showing features of his body and masculinity it creates a kind of attraction, but in real world who wears underwear is not always as powerful as shown in these ads. People always try to co-relate themselves with these models. In female accessories advertisements model is always beautiful looking full of life wearing a good dress and using some products where they show she has become more beautiful after wearing certain product this image always leads to the kind of desire to look more beautiful. lensman is always paid to create these kinds of powerful images to lure target audience.Still photography can create shock, adventure, fascination, disgust, anger, confusion. The photograph taken by weegee in mid-forties image of a school children who see a murder in the street captured a fascination in that childs eyes which fascinates the interpreter in a same way the child is fascinated by that scene. Still photography of nude woman or a man is always a impartial object of sex there is no subjectivity involved. It does not give anything myth it is never shocking or adventurous it is just taken to create desire to have sex.Barthess concepts are particularly applicable on examining the photographic truth however its not very much applicable on inject images and television news images. As in those cases it is the music and the sequence of frames which decides the meaning rather than a particular frame.Ideology plays a very important utiliza tion in how an image is perceived by a viewer. Ideologies are system of beliefs that exists in all culture. It is a broad, shared sets of values and beliefs through which an individual lives in sets on complex social relationships. An ideology gives the viewer the perception to view image of a partially change glass as half filled or half empty. Ideology goes hand in hand with Barthes concept to denote the meaning of an image.Ideologies plays major role in interpretation of images it is different for different cultures based on their beliefs and values the way they live their life in particular society. One particular image can be adopted by one society or ideology but it could be taboo for another group of people. Like a picture of a pig on school books or images is very normal for one group of society but it could be understood as a taboo in Muslim Ideologies. In this case I can say perspective of the people differs from one society or ideology to another and this is a major fact how it is going to control the success of that image. Beliefs and set of rules is the major factor in interpretation of images and videos.Photography is a kind primitive theatre, a kind of tableau Vivant, a figuration of the motionless and made up face beneath which we see dead- Roland Barthes (1982), Camera Lucida Reflection on Photography (Fontana Paperbacks).p.32In old time people used to play the characters of the plays where they used to show their emotions by showing different expressions and the objective was to create drama in front of the public to arrest out those emotions which was the requirement of the play but inside their make-ups and dresses they are not the same people which they portray in theatre .so as said by barthes Photography is also kind of theatre where people poses and try to imitate themselves by showing best out of them the full smiling faces if it is a photograph of a family everybody will stand closer to each other holding hands hugging and kissing s o in photographs people try to show what meaning in should convey to the viewer it does not matter how much do they love each other or hate each other in reality.Charles Pierce worked with a somewhat different model in which the signifier ( Word/ Image ) is distinguished not only from the signified (meaning) but also from the referent , or the object itself . In addition perforate defined categories of signs based on different kinds of relationship between signifiers and signified, for instance pierce made a distinction between indexical, iconic, and symbolic signs. Marita Sturken and Lisa Cartwright(2001), Practices of looking An Introduction to Visual culture(Oxford Oxford University Press), P.20Iconic and symbolic signs always plays a major role in Image world , For an example picture of mother and child always gives the straight meaning of motherhood , love and affection it is universal it is understood in all the languages and by all the people. Picture of famous actress Maril yn Monroe is an iconic symbol of sex and beauty since long time her iconic image hasnt changed.In every picture the reality and representation is not necessarily same some pictures the way they are taken and how a photographer represents it in the front of viewers is entirely dependent on his skills how he is going to personalize the particular event and by doing selection and framing how it looks like Here comes the manipulation part every picture is not presented just as an object to create subjectivity he has to understand the right angle positions and framing. This thing is very greenness in commercial world of advertisements and movie making, director always target some audience and he raises certain issues to think what impact it will give after adding sound and visual effects and graphical effects. In silent movies everything is expressed by showing emotions and body gesture of the characters. In Advertisement of Benetton where a black lady is nursing a white baby gives dire ct impact of racism where in connotes lots of meaning to different group of people and every time this picture says different stories some people might interpret it is based on unity, slavery or other general issues. In Advertisement of Hdfc bank they portray image of different people from different countries that means they are not catering one part of the world they are ready to serve people from different parts, cultural background and societies here comes the personalization. Every frame, color coding and background contributes to its meaning to different people. Manipulation of Images is very common now days so we cannot say that it is a piece of evidence , techniques are used to show the different things in different way emphasis is given how to create it more powerful the maximum impact on masses.The value of image is mainly its authenticity, true emotions, and hidden meanings. In television and news papers its value is how fast an issue has been covered and the channels thos e show the latest news or current events before any other channel becomes authentic news channel so success of every news, advertisement or movie is based on its authenticity how it impresses viewers and how real it looks.SummaryTo interpret images we need to examine the visual language the image is speaking. The image contains layers of truth and it relies in the viewers capacity to decode the language its arduous to speak. Reading and interpreting images is one way that we as viewers contribute by assign our culture to the interpreted meaning. Hence an image is a multiform of subjective and objective meanings as said by Marita SturkenReferences Marita Sturken and Lisa Cartwright(2001), Practices of looking An Introduction to Visual culture(Oxford Oxford University Press), P.20Roland Barthes (1982), Camera Lucida Reflection on Photography (Fontana Paperbacks).p.32

Reviewing The Usefulness Of Official Statistics Criminology Essay

Reviewing The Usefulness Of Official Statistics Criminology EssayOfficial statistics give information on the itemize of umbrages commit that be collected directly from each police. They claim to provide answers to two questions the termination of crime, and who commits it. Criminologists have identified the problem of official statistics giving a false effigy of the level and type of crime that actu eachy exists. As a contribute, other types of information argon turned to including dupe surveys, longitudinal research and self-report studies. This essay for contribute begin by exploring the uses of official statistics then go on to explore the problems with the entropy. The other types of data available will then be outlined and the receipts of them will be evaluated.Offical statistics atomic number 18 figures that have been collected by the police and are published by the Home Office annually and contain data on crimes cognize to by the police. Official statistics have the use of representing trends in crime that can easily be compared over time. For example, the Office for subject Statistics (2008) published a report saying In England and Wales, 4,060 Anti-social Behaviour Orders (ASBOs) were issued in 2005, over 18 per cent more(prenominal) than the previous year. They also earnly show which social group is more likely to commit certain types of crime. This could be the persons age, ethnicity, social class. They allow police to know where their priorities should be and aid governments in stage setting their policies on crime. To a criminologists point of view, they are a free, secondary source of data that are going to be useful even if it is just to place how much of a dark-figure on that point is.The term Dark-figure is ultimately the entire problem with utilise official statistics to study crime. The dark figure is defined as the measuring stick of crime which is un describe or unknown active. The total amount of crime is made up of th ose that are known of and recorded, and the dark figure of crime (Online dictionary Of The Social Sciences 2008). The dark figure is said to exist due to the social construction of crime. This is the idea that what is seen as criminal behaviour to one person whitethorn not be to another. The result there are crimes that the public to do not report to the police, and there are crimes that the police to not record. These make up a monumental number of crimes that are not recorded by the police, and make up the dark figure.Un account crimes occur for a range of reasons, and are a massive contributor to the dark figure, which removes usefulness from official statistics. The police rely on the public to inform them about crime, they do not slackly find out about crimes themselves. As Maguire et. Al (2002322) said whether people perceive a particular action or event as crime, let alone whether they report it as such to anyone elsecan vary according to their own knowledge, awareness, or feelings about crime, which in turn whitethorn be influenced by the general public mood or the preoccupations of politicians and the media. offenses will only generally go reported where there is a victim, therefore there is a large number of victimless crimes which the police are not getting told about. Typical crimes of this nature let ind traffic offences and violations of laws regarding public decency such as public drunkenness. These crimes will all contribute to the dark figure. Crimes may not be reported to the police if it is not perceived to be serious. The victim may regard the offence as trivial and believe that reporting it to the police is more effort than it is worth.A major source of unreported crime comes from white-collar crimes. Edwin Sutherland came up with the concept in 1945 which, at the time, was a rattling different idea of crime from anything before (Coleman and Moyniham 19969). Sutherland (1940 cited in Coleman and Moyniham 19969) defined the concept as c rimes committed by persons of respectability and high social status in the course of their occupations. Crimes of this nature could include bribery and corruption in business and politics, the breaking of trade regulations and breaking food and do drugs laws. Some crimes may be committed by organizations or corporations themselves, rather than an individual, and are often known as corporate crimes. Sutherland (1940 cited in Coleman and Moyniham 19969) condones how these types of crimes are very widespread, up to now a measure of them doesnt appear in police records. Prosecutions are unlikely due to the apparent trivial nature of the crime, and often it is difficult to get sufficient evidence. Generally, other procedures are used to deal with these criminals, such as civil actions or those of special agencies. Firms are unlikely to prosecute employees over inner crime to the company such as stealing property, as they believe the result will be their company looking bad. He goes on to explain that white-collar criminals are the close damaging of all due to the results. These crimes will therefore make up a large proportion of all crimes committed, yet the majority of them are not included in official statistics, so contributing to making them useful to study.Another major contributor to official statistics not giving a true picture on crime is crimes that go unrecorded by the police. Simmons and Dodd (2003) point out that the police have a effectual obligation to record all crime, however over 30% of all crimes reported to the police in 2002/3 were not recorded. Cases where crimes arent recorded include cases where the crime is seen by the police as being trivial and the offence minor. The police may see that the time taken to fill in the paper direct on a minor crime or one where catching the victim is unlikely is simply a waste of time. A process known as cuffing is where police downgrade crimes in order to meet Home Office efficiency targets. They may even make a crime dissolve all together so it does not show up in statistics, for example theft can be downgraded to lost property, which is not a crime. This may be done in cases where police pay is partially determined by clean-up rates, so it is in their interest to have a low number of crimes recorded. An example of this is in a recent news article where Alan Travis (2008) said, the Home Office disclosed that up to 17 police forces have been under-recording some(a) types of the around serious violent crime.There is further dispute in the usefulness of official statistics from the problem that certain crimes appear more obsessly than others. A fall upon cause of this is media amplification. This is where certain crimes are concentrated on by the media and made out to be big problems (often when they are not), known as moral panics. The result is that the police will concentrate more of their time in areas where these people are. This could hateful that the tendency of the po lice to concentrate in low income areas may mean higher arrests of the working class, which may distort the figures. It could also be argued that police resources are devoted to patrolling public places, which is where most young males spend their social life, so leading to higher arrest rates amongst them and distortion to the statistics.As a response to the problems of the data in official statistics, a number of alternative ship canal are also used to study crime. The most popular alternative if the British Crime Survey, which is a victimization study. The British Crime Survey was archetypical conducted in 1981 and has become an annual event since 2000. The Home Office carries out the victim study so they dont have to simply rely on using police statistics to study crime, and see it as being more reliable than police statistics for certain types of crime. The survey itself involves asking a sample of 47,000 adults if they have been the victim of crime in the previous year. It al so asks individuals if they reported the crime, and whether the police ultimately recorded it. Data from the British Crime Survey may reveal that there are either more or less offences in particular categories, implying that an offence is being either under reported or that it is being reported accurately. All in all then, the BCS data seems to indicate that official statistics on crime do not provide a valid picture of the extent of crime, and overall they may underestimate the trend.However, we cannot say that the British Crime Survey is giving a true picture, as there are also more limitations with the survey. Maguire (2002) explains how there are categories of crime that are not included in the British Crime Survey that are included in police statistics. This could include cases where there is a commercial or corporate victim (such as shop-lifting), or if it is a victimless crime. He also noted that sexual offences have been reported so rarely that it is not possible to put for ward reliable statistics. Another major flaw with the survey is that it excludes offences against victims under sixteen years old. He goes on to explain that national surveys are therefore much less useful at obtaining information about certain incidents of crime than others. He makes it clear that the BCS, therefore, it cannot be too heavily stressed, provides an alternative, rather than a directly comparable, overall picture of crime to that offered by police statistics it is fuller than the latter in some respects, but narrower in others. (Maguire 2002).Another form of information on crime is Self-report studies. These are where questionnaires or interviews are conducted in confidence to collect information about individuals, and ask them to admit to the number of crimes they have committed, including those which they were not caught. The data can then be compared with official conviction rates to determine which offences are most likely to be committed. Maguire (2002) concluded thatOn the one hand, these suggest that crime is committed by a much larger proportion of the population than is officially held responsible for it. On the other hand, survey respondents who have previously been in trouble with the law tend to admit to more serious and more frequent offending behaviour than people who have never been convictedThe studies are useful as people generally do not fear getting in trouble for admitting to the offences, so a more valid picture of the number and extent of crime is given.Self-report studies do however come with fundamental problems. Unreliable answers are believed to be obtained as respondents may exaggerate when answering questions, respondents may be embarrassed so either not admit to a crime or give an unreliable account of it, respondents may have forgotten the full details of a crime they committed. The majority of self-reported studies survey are conducted on samples of school and college students, and are rarely used on adults. This t herefore doesnt make them a good technique in canvass the general level of crime in society. The surveys are also likely to undercover minor and trivial crimes, but not find out about the major and less common more serious crimes. For this reason, the self-report study cannot be said to be an effective way of investigating crime.Overall, it appears that there is not single method effective in studying crime, and while the official statistics do contain the dark-figure, they do provide a very useful starting point. When used in combination with the British Crime Survey, the inaccuracy from the dark figure becomes less problematic, and a truer picture of crime is given. Neither is an effective source of information on its own, and only give part of the picture.

Shrinking Middle class Essay -- essays papers

Shrinking Middle classThe Incredibly Shrinking Middle Class I never thought I would find so much information on the incredibly shrinking kernel class until I searched around for it on the Internet. In the United States, the eye class is put into a strange socioeconomic category. Although it is non easily defined everyone believes they belong in that class. I guess what you can do is look at it in two different ways. First ask the question What percent of all income is distributed to the pose class at any time, then think about How many families withstand enough income to achieve a middle class standard of living at any point of time. Basically these are two ways of coming the middle class called either the percentile approach or the class share approach.What comes into my mind when thinking on how to categorize those people that belong in the middle class, I look at such things as education, race, family, income, gender and how many people are in your household. I look at it as those people who are making between $40,000 and about $85,000 to be in the middle class while the next step would be the upper middle class and then to the upper class. Maybe I am wrong here, but like I said before, everyone wants to have that I am middle class attitude. The most recent Census Bureau survey data shows that the share of households with incomes of $75,000 or more has doubled in the past 24 years. early(a) studies, however, discover that more people who depart the middle class move down than up, at least temporarily.The most often cited cause of the decline of the middle class in the United States is stagnant wages. Between 1955 and 1970, real wages adjusted and inflation rose by an medium of 2.5 percent per year. Between 1971 and 1994, the average growth of real wages was 0.3 percent a year. The stagnation of wages has been especially noticeable to upper-middle-class people, who rely very much on the property they make at their jobs. Recessions see m to hit higher income households much harder, which sends them down to the middle class. Middle-income households may or may not be more believably than higher-income households to qualify for unemployment compensation when jobs are scarce. But those who do are more likely than high-income households to receive benefits that replace a greater share of their regular wages, which helps them maintai... ...ocess. information generated by the Census Bureau, the Bureau of Labor Statistics, the Federal Reserve and other nonpartisan sources oppose claims commonly made. For example, data from such agencies show that differences in family income for the most part reflect differences in how many members of a family actually work and how hard they work. Americans in all income groups have prospered, or have failed to prosper, together. Gains by upper-income Americans have not come at the expense of middle or lower-income Americans. Nor has anyone else gained in those periods when higher-income families have lost ground. The best era in recent history for middle-income and lower-income American families was the Reagan era, which lasted from 1982 to 1989. During that period, middle-class families saw their real incomes grow by an average of 12.6 percent, while lower income families saw an average increase in real earnings of 12.9 percent. The wealth variation debate should focus on what public policies will aid the accumulation of wealth by more, not fewer, American families. The first step Americans need to make toward transforming our consumer culture is to understand it better.

A Technical Analysis of Ergonomics and Human Factors in Modern Flight D

I. Introduction Since the dawn of the aviation era, cockpit design has becomeincreasingly intricate owing to the advent of new technologies enablingaircraft to fly farther and faster more efficiently than ever before. Withgreater workloads imposed on pilots as fleets modernize, the earthly partake of he orshe exceeding the workload limit has become manifest. Because of theirregular nature of man, this problem is impossible to eliminate completely.However, the instances of occurrence can be drastically reduced by examining thenature of man, how he operates in the cockpit, and what must be done byengineers to design a system in which man and mold are ideally user interfaced.The latter point involves an in-depth analysis of system design with an emphasison human factors, biomechanics, cockpit ensures, and parade systems. Byanalyzing these components of cockpit design, and determining which variables ofeach give yield the lowest errors, a system can be designed in which theL iveware-Hardware interface can promote safety and reduce mishap frequency.II. The accounting Of Human Factors in Cockpit Design The history of cockpit design can be traced as far back as the firstballoon flights, where a barometer was employ to measure altitude. The Wrightbrothers incorporated a string attached to the aircraft to indicate slips andskids (Hawkins, 241). However, the first real efforts towards human factorsimplementation in cockpit design began in the early 1930s. During this time,the join States Postal Service began flying aircraft in all-weather missions(Kane, 49). The greater reliance on instrumentation raised the question ofwhere to put each display and control. However, not much attention was beingfocused on this area as engineers cared more about getting the instrument in thecockpit, than about how it would interface with the pilot (Sanders & McCormick,739). In the mid- to late 1930s, the development of the first gyroscopicinstruments forced engineers to make their first major human factors-relateddecision. Rudimentary situation indicators raised concern about whether thedisplays should reflect the view as seen from inside the cockpit, having thehorizon move behind a fixed miniature airplane, or as it would be seen from outdoor(a) the aircraft. Until the end of World War I, aircraft were manufactured... ...anifest. The discussion of biomechanics in chapter three was purposelybroad, because it is such a wide and diverse field. The concepts touched uponindicate the areas of concern that a designer must address before creating acockpit that is ergonomically friendly in the physical sense. Controls anddisplays hold a little more relevance, because they are the implicit in(p) controland feedback devices involved in controlling the aircraft. These were discussedin greater detail because many of those concepts never reach the conscious mindof the operator. Although awareness of these factors is not deprecative to safeaircraft operat ion, they do play a vital role in the subconscious mind of thepilot during critical operational phases under high stress. Because of theunpredictable nature of man, it would be foolish to assume a zero toleranceenvironment to potential errors like these, but further investigation into thedesign process, biomechanics, control and display devices may yield greaterinsight as far as causal factors is concerned. Armed with this knowledge,engineers can set out to build aircraft not only to transport people andmaterial, but also to save lives.